History of Theatre: From Greek to Modern Day

History of Theatre: From Greek to Modern Day Modern American Theatre Modern American theatre has changed a lot since the time of traditional Greek Tragedies and Roman Theatrics. Technology changes have changed many of the different methods that we use to convey artistic styles and themes. Todays theatre has many contrasting and diverse styles; it contains both higher levels of musical and acting talent. The Broadway sensation Wicked for instance, is a great example of modern theatre. It contains a very interesting script, and the theme of the story is a combination of comedy and tragedy. Technology changes in costuming, prop building and even acting has changed everything about the theatre. Wicked also took on an international presence, unlike past theatre, which was isolated to regional performances and even seasonal performances, Wicked has been shown on every continent on the planet. Even though there have been a lot of changes in modern theatre, the core components of modern theatre are still the same as they have been in the past. Although theatr e has evolved a lot from historical theatre, many of the same themes, styles and developments are still consistent with the past. Theatre had its origins in the earliest parts of human history. Before there was actual theatre and actors, the first form of theatre can be found in the development of dance culture. Dances were originally performed in commemoration of major events, celebrations and religious ceremonies. At first, they were very informal affairs with little practice, but dancing as rituals evolved into very sophisticated forms of artistry by the 3000B BCE era. The foremost reason that dancing occurred was for religious rituals. The theme of religion that first originated in ritualistic dancing will continue in theatre for more than four thousand years. Famed critic Ellis Havelock explains, Religious dances, it may be observed, are sometimes ecstatic, sometimes pantomimic. . . . Pantomimic dances, with their effort to heighten natural expression and to imitate natural process, bring the dancers into the divine sphere of creation and enable them to assist vicariously in the energy of the gods. The dan ce thus becomes the presentation of a divine drama. As dancing became more sophisticated with time, and they were eventually performed at every level, especially before major events such as wars, seasonal changes, or religious celebrations. Eventually, rituals evolved further into sophisticated displays that took on themes and styles, this was the first development of drama as we know it (Bellinger, 1927). The evolution of dance from tribal and informal affairs into very complicated rituals can be seen in Persian and Asian early civilizations, they exhibited the most complex form of evolving dance culture. Despite the early development of dance, there are many similarities to modern theatre. First, ritualistic dances had heavy religious overtones and only performed during key periods of time. This was the foundation of Greek theatre, which directly evolved from these tribal dances and dramas. Another similarity is the development of story-telling through theatre, as dances took on more sophistication; they took on story-lines, complicated plots and a common theme that is carried in the dance. The emerging concept of stories through dance was very important because it led to the creation of theatre. This type of dance culture evolved slowly into a new type of theatre during the Greek era, this era saw the rise of theatre, not as a religious experience, but rather as an art form. Greek theatre is where modern theatre draws its roots from. It is the start of the Western tradition of theatre because not only did the Greeks enjoy theatre as part of religion, but also saw it as an art form. The first steps towards Greek theatre occurred when dances and rituals to the ancient Greek God of Win, Dionysus, became more and more sophisticated. The biggest change was the addition of style and theme that led to the development of plays, where spoken word was used rather than only song and dance. Formal Greek theatre is renowned for its style, themes and physical constructions. Every element of modern theatre can be traced to Greek theatre. The great Greek playwrights were very interested in the development of theme in their plays. They were the first to create category of themes suited for different plays. These themes included tragedy, comedy and satire. Tragedy was the most common element in Greek plays, in particular, the biggest development that the Greeks made as in the concept of a Tragic hero, or a hero who is ultimately defeated by their hubris (Bates, 45-47). Stylistically, Greek plays had a very specific structure; they were created primarily to be played once, therefore, they were often staged in a series of four plays. With the first three being tragedies and the final one a comedy that tied them all together to lighten the mood of the crowd. The development of style and a system for organizing plays along scenes and acts was very important and is still something that persists in modern theatre. Finally, the Greeks were also known for their actual physical constructions of theatre areas. Unlike, the previous era where rituals were performs at religious centers and in preparation for battles, the Greeks created amphitheaters within every city where they would hold yearly plays and contests. Amphitheaters were large central stages that are surrounded by raised stairs for seating. They became the popular form of theatre construction for the next thousand years. Greek theatre can be seen as the roots of all modern theatre because they added many of the different core elements that we see in theatre today. They were also the first to have professional actors and playwrights rather than religious figures. Greek theatre started the trend of having professional performers by introducing the actor’s guild where they trained very skilled troupes that would travel around Greece and perform for cities and rural areas along the way. Following Greek theatre, the next evolution of theatre occurred during the Roman era. Roman theatre was not extremely original because it took many of the elements of Greek theatre and made it their own. Many Roman plays were adaptations or even direct copies of Greek plays, so much of their architecture, styles and themes were the same. The biggest difference between the two is that Romans made theatre much more secular. Their plays did not focus on religion nearly as much as Greek theatre, which meant that they were more focused on the aesthetics and art of theatre. This led to the extended use of props to communicate different meaning. For instance, a black wig was used to mean that a character is a very young man. The use of props and elaborate backgrounds surrounding theatre made them more attractive and accessible to the masses. This meant that theatre was one of the main forms of entertainment during the Roman era. Because Roman theatre was less sophisticated than Greek theatr e in many ways, and it did not have a religious focus, they performed many more comedies than tragedies. Overall Roman theatre is important to the history of theatre because it represented easier access to the arts and a secular approach to theatre. Theatre during the medieval era however, took a very large step backwards. While the Roman era expanded on the Greek era, the Medieval or Dark Ages represented a period of chaos and seclusion. The fall of the Roman Empire meant that Europe became less focused in the cities and more agrarian. Without a large audience to appeal to, the concept of theatre almost died completely. During this era, theatre and plays were exclusively religious in nature and were performed by monks and priests as they traveled around the country. The only type of theatre that was available related strongly to the Bible. Rather than having props or physical stages, plays were performed by traveling monks as they moved from village to village, there ewes no formal staging areas. From a style perspective, plays were performed as if they were direct translations of the Bible and all of the different scenes and acts corresponded with Biblical stories. One of the most famous plays of this era was the English Cycle s, which portrayed the birth and death of Jesus. Theatre during this era took a very large step backwards from the advances made from the Greek and Roman era, however, the majority of theatre development did not die, but they were not explored until much later during the Renaissance revival period. The era that had the most influence on modern theatre was the Renaissance era. American theatre draws most of its influences from this era because it closely relates to the style, themes and structures that we are use to in our modern era. The Renaissance was a period of revival that took place across Europe as changes in technology, art, science and all aspects of life took place at the same time. There were many different theatre movements during this era; the two largest of these was the Spanish theatre movement and the English theatre movement. In Spain, theatre evolved during the Golden Age of around 1550 to 1700 when Spain was the most powerful country on the planet. During this era, theatre became divided into three areas, religious, comedic and musical. The greatest development in theatre occurred in England during this period, English theatre is best known for the Elizabethan period, where theatre as an art form flourished. English theatre is known for two areas, theatre construction and its famous actors and writers. English theatre was the first to construct very large theatres solely for the use of plays and musicals. These â€Å"hubs† were where the most famous plays were performed, and the most famous of these was the Globe theatre where Shakespeare held his performances. The construction of these theatres was very influential to modern theatre because it resulted in the development of standalone arenas for performances. This was a much bigger step towards more stylized displays, better props and most importantly, permanent actors. Elizabethan era produced the most well known and famous writer, William Shakespeare. During Shakespeare’s career, he almost single handedly propelled theatre to the top of entertainmen t and national attention. His Globe theatre would attract royal donors and he was sponsored by the Queen. During this era, English theatre took theatre to new heights of success and as a result, many of today’s conventions are adopted from this era. Even today Shakespeare’s plays are reproduced in theatres around the country. The neo-classic era was known for using very formal decorum around each performance, where every part of the display had to be picture perfect. Modern theatre is very hard to explain unless we can see it through the lenses of history. American theatre is very diverse, it contains many different styles of theatre that includes traditional theatre in the form of Shakespeare plays, but it also extends out as far as Cirque De Soleil and the modern Broadway musicals. All of these different forms of theatre have common similarities however that were inherited from the past. One of the major developments of modern theatre is the location of a central theatre â€Å"Mecca† in New York City. The development of Broadway, especially in the early 1900s made it one of the most prominent areas of theatre culture in the world. Broadway brought out a new culture to theatre because it created â€Å"theatre as art† to a new level; it also brought social distinction between classes. The theme that is consistent in American theatre is Realism, a concept that was developed as early as the Roman era, but only became mainstream during the Renaissance and beyond. Realism is theatre that depicts real life, both its pitfalls and its brutality. This is best seen in a classic American play, â€Å"The Death of a Salesman†. Which showed how the American dream can sometimes be only a dream for the majority of the American middle class? Theatre has now diversified to many different thematic focuses however. Musicals, theatre, and classical theatre are very different each with their own â€Å"Mecca† and focus. Another major development is in the educational system for actors and writers, within modern theatre it is no longer a guild system as in previous generations and eras, but now there are formal schools and colleges that teaches the art of acting and theatre. Actors and writers formed their own guilds that were able to leverage their talents to help increase theatre within the US in general. As technology increased, theatre is now more accessible than ever, stages are much easier to construct and skilled actors and writers can travel the world in order to stage their performances. Technology has also made it much easier to build props, so performances today are becoming more realistic with better props and better technology. Theatre has a very strong place in our society because of its culture and history. However, even with the success of theatre it has changed because of the emergence of television and radio, which compete with theatre in terms of entertainment venues. As a result, theatre has become a more upper class or â€Å"sophisticated† enjoyment, which has led to the emphasis on musicals. In the new millennium, theatre will change even more, this can already be seen with the new types of musicals such as â€Å"Wicked† that are being performed on Broadway, as well as new theatre troupes like Cirque De Soleil which are revolutionizing how we see theatre and theatrical performances. In both cases, theatre is very much alive, and many of the elements of today’s theatre can be seen throughout history. For thousands of years, theatre has developed and become a very important part of our society. Therefore it only makes sense that it will continue to be more important as time goes on. References Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. August Wilhelm Schlegel. London: George Bell Sons, 1904. pp. 200-12 Manual of Greek Literature from the Earliest Authentic Periods to the Close of the Byzantine Era. Charles Anthon. New York: Harper Brothers, 1853. pp. 160-174. The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 1. Ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. A Short History of the Drama. Martha Fletcher Bellinger. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1927. A Short History of the Drama. Martha Fletcher Bellinger. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1927. pp. 3-8. Book Title: The Dance of Life. Contributors: Havelock Ellis author. Publisher: Houghton Mifflin. Place of Publication: Boston. Publication Year: 1923. Page Number: iii.

Air Pollution Essay

Introduction The earth’s atmosphere, at or near sea level, consists approximately of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other gases. If it were possible to remain in this state, 100 percent clean air would result. However, many varied sources allow other gases and particulates to mix with the clean air, causing our atmosphere to become unclean or polluted. Some of these pollutants are visible while others are invisible, with each having the capability of causing distress to the eyes, ears, throat, skin and respiratory system. Should these pollutants become concentrated in a specific area and under certain conditions, death could result due to the displacement or chemical change of the oxygen content in the air. These pollutants can also cause great damage to the environment and to the many man made objects that are exposed to the elements. To better understand the causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be categorized into 3 separate types, natural, industrial and aut omotive. Natural Pollutants Natural pollution has been present on earth since before man appeared and continues to be a factor when discussing air pollution, although it causes only a small percentage of the overall pollution problem. It is the direct result of decaying organic matter, wind born smoke and particulates from such natural events as plain and forest fires (ignited by heat or lightning), volcanic ash, sand and dust which can spread over a large area of the countryside. Such a phenomenon of natural pollution has been seen in the form of volcanic eruptions, with the resulting plume of smoke, steam and volcanic ash blotting out the sun’s rays as it spreads and rises higher into the atmosphere. As it travels into the atmosphere the upper air currents catch and carry the smoke and ash, while condensing the steam back into water vapor. As the water vapor, smoke and ash travel on their journey, the smoke dissipates into the atmosphere while the ash and moisture settle back to earth in a trail hundreds of miles long. In some cases, lives are lost and millions of dollars of property damage result. Industrial Pollutants Industrial pollution is caused primarily by industrial processes, the burning of coal, oil and natural gas, which in turn produce smoke and fumes. Because the burning fuels contain large amounts of sulfur, the principal ingredients of smoke and fumes are sulfur dioxide and particulate matter. This type of pollutant occurs most severely during still, damp and cool weather, such as at night. Even in its less severe form, this pollutant is not confined to just cities. Because of air movements, the pollutants move for miles over the surrounding countryside, leaving in its path a barren and unhealthy environment for all living things. Working with Federal, State and Local mandated regulations and by carefully monitoring emissions, big business has greatly reduced the amount of pollutant introduced from its industrial sources, striving to obtain an acceptable level. Because of the mandated industrial emission clean up, many land areas and streams in and around the cities that were formerly barren of vegetation and life, have now begun to move back in the direction of nature’s intended balance. Automotive Pollutants The third major source of air pollution is automotive emissions. The emissions from the internal combustion engines were not an appreciable problem years ago because of the small number of registered vehicles and the nation’s small highway system. However, during the early 1950’s, the trend of the American people was to move from the cities to the surrounding suburbs. This caused an immediate problem in transportation because the majority of suburbs were not afforded mass transit conveniences. This lack of transportation created an attractive market for the automobile manufacturers, which resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles produced and sold, along with a marked increase in highway construction between cities and the suburbs. Multi-vehicle families emerged with a growing emphasis placed on an individual vehicle per family member. As the increase in vehicle ownership and usage occurred, so did pollutant levels in and around the cities, as suburbanites drove daily to their businesses and employment, returning at the end of the day to their homes in the suburbs. It was noted that a smoke and fog type haze was being formed and at times, remained in suspension over the cities, taking time to dissipate. At first this â€Å"smog,† derived from the words â€Å"smoke† and â€Å"fog,† was thought to result from industrial pollution but it was determined that automobile emissions shared the blame. It was discovered that when normal automobile emissions were exposed to sunlight for a period of time, complex chemical reactions would take place. It is now known that smog is a photo chemical layer which develops when certain oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) from automobile emissions are exposed to sunlight. Pollution was more severe when smog would become stagnant over an area in which a warm layer of air settled over the top of the cooler air mass, trapping and holding the cooler mass at ground level. The trapped cooler air would keep the emissions from being dispersed and diluted through normal air flows. This type of air stagnation was given the name â€Å"Temperature Inversion.† TEMPERATURE INVERSION In normal weather situations, surface air is warmed by heat radiating from the earth’s surface and the sun’s rays. This causes it to rise upward, into the atmosphere. Upon rising it will cool through a convection type heat exchange with the cooler upper air. As warm air rises, the surface pollutants are carried upward and dissipated into the atmosphere. When a temperature inversion occurs, we find the higher air is no longer cooler, but is warmer than the surface air, causing the cooler surface air to become trapped. This warm air blanket can extend from above ground level to a few hundred or even a few thousand feet into the air. As the surface air is trapped, so are the pollutants, causing a severe smog condition. Should this stagnant air mass extend to a few thousand feet high, enough air movement with the inversion takes place to allow the smog layer to rise above ground level but the pollutants still cannot dissipate. This inversion can remain for days over an area, with the smog level only rising or lowering from ground level to a few hundred feet high. Meanwhile, the pollutant levels increase, causing eye irritation, respiratory problems, reduced visibility, plant damage and in some cases, even disease. This inversion phenomenon was first noted in the Los Angeles, California area. The city lies in terrain resembling a basin and with certain weather conditions, a cold air mass is held in the basin while a warmer air mass covers it like a lid. Because this type of condition was first documented as prevalent in the Los Angeles area, this type of trapped pollution was named Los Angeles Smog, although it occurs in other areas where a large concentration of automobiles are used and the air remains stagnant for any length of time. HEAT TRANSFER Consider the internal combustion engine as a machine in which raw materials must be placed so a finished product comes out. As in any machine operation, a certain amount of wasted material is formed. When we relate this to the internal combustion engine, we find that through the input of air and fuel, we obtain power during the combustion process to drive the vehicle. The by-product or waste of this power is, in part, heat and exhaust gases with which we must dispose. The heat from the combustion process can rise to over 4000 °F (2204 °C). The dissipation of this heat is controlled by a ram air effect, the use of cooling fans to cause air flow and a liquid coolant solution surrounding the combustion area to transfer the heat of combustion through the cylinder walls and into the coolant. The coolant is then directed to a thin-finned, multi-tubed radiator, from which the excess heat is transferred to the atmosphere by 1 of the 3 heat transfer methods, conduction, convection or radiation. The cooling of the combustion area is an important part in the control of exhaust emissions. To understand the behavior of the combustion and transfer of its heat, consider the air/fuel charge. It is ignited and the flame front burns progressively across the combustion chamber until the burning charge reaches the cylinder walls. Some of the fuel in contact with the walls is not hot enough to burn, thereby snuffing out or quenching the combustion process. This leaves unburned fuel in the combustion chamber. This unburned fuel is then forced out of the cylinder and into the exhaust system, along with the exhaust gases. Many attempts have been made to minimize the amount of unburned fuel in the combustion chambers due to quenching, by increasing the coolant temperature and lessening the contact area of the coolant around the combustion area. However, design limitations within the combustion chambers prevent the complete burning of the air/fuel charge, so a certain amount of the unburned fuel is still expelled into the exhaust system, regardless of modifications to the engine.

Important Time in My Life Essay

There comes a time in our lives where we all have to face important decisions and challenges maybe taking examinations or starting a new job. For me, going to secondary school was an important time and was a big challenge. This can be a stressful and nerve racking experience for any eleven year old, unlike most of the people that started my school I didn’t know many people from my previous primary school, so they already had foundations and memories and did not really have to make new friends as importantly as I did. There was only 9 people in my year 6 and 7 went to the same school as I did. Before I knew it the six weeks holiday was over and the morning arrived with the new shoes and the shiny black blazer. Then I had to be walked to school by my Mum. I was reluctant to leave the comfort of knowing somebody but somehow found that extra confidence to walk into the school hall full of strangers. Luckily for me I attended football on Fridays and Saturday mornings and there was a boy from there. I straight away went and sat next to him and was very relieved. Little did I know we were sectioned off into forms and I had humiliated myself by walking into the other form’s turf instead of my own heroic Miss Watson form. After having a sixth form girl come show me the correct way in front of everyone and show me to my rightful place, I found that people started to come and talk to me and one girl especially called Jasmine who was also alone, started making conversation. I thought I would be able to stick with her the rest of the day, especially when our names were called out together for being in the same form. We spent the morning meeting our tutors and taking part in activities and games in order to get to know each other. As we were learning more and more about each other, I was fairly confident by lunch time I had made a friend in Jasmine, and got over being alone on my first day. Although, as I soon found out, Jasmine had got friends in other houses and forgetting me she soon ran off to go meet and play with them. I was too shy to go after her and introduce myself to a whole new group of people, instead I just stood against a wall by myself as I did not know what else to do or where to go. Looking back on this now I would never just stand against a wall by myself watching everybody making friends and enjoying their lunch time but at the time my shyness took over and that was it. Time passed slowly and there was still half an hour to go before I could be in the comfort of the classroom with the people I recognized again. I then got through the first day of an  important time of my life. Why was it important? Because it kick started my road to getting a higher education and making friends.

Analyzing CS Lewis We Have No Right to Happiness and...

1. In We have no Right to Happiness CS. Lewis claims that the right to happiness is chiefly claimed for the sexual impulse. Because Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House does not leave Torvald for another man, the principles upon which C.L. Lewis bases his essay are moot and do not apply. Lewis exhibits a disturbing amount of gender bias, sexism, and stereotyped assumption in his essay, but he might indeed understand that Torvald has emotionally and psychologically abused his wife throughout their marriage. At the same time, Lewis presents himself as a traditionalist. His conservative social values are self-admitted when he accuses his friend Clare of being leftist in her politics. Towards the end of We Have no Right to Happiness, Lewis lets his misogynist flag fly when he claims that women need domestic happiness more than men, and that men have an obligation to keep their marriage vows because of this. The author also states that the quality by which they most easily hold a man, their beauty, decreases every year after they have come to maturity, a clear admittance that womens primary value to men is their beauty. Thus, Lewis would sympathize well with Torvald and Torvalds upkeep of a pristine little dolls house, or bird cage both metaphors fit for Ibsens play. Lewis would therefore chastise Nora for leaving her husband, because to do so violates her sacred marriage vows. She would be cast as the villain by Lewis equally as much as Torvald. Lewis would